Ancient China 210  BCE

What is happening in Ancient China in 500BCE

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The decline of the Zhou kingdom

In northern China, kings of the Zhou dynasty came to power in the 11th century BCE. Their kingdom expanded over an ever-larger area of China. To help them govern their growing realm, the Zhou kings divided it into many districts, each under a powerful local lord.

These lords served the Zhou kings loyally for a long time, by providing them with troops and tribute. Gradually, however, they became more concerned with ruling their own territories, rather than with helping the kings in ruling the kingdom as a whole.

Many states

In 771 BCE a group of barbarians and rebels sacked the Zhou capital, Haojing. The Zhou kings never recovered their authority. Although they remained as kings, real power now passed to the local lords.

These lords soon fell to fighting amongst themselves. The more powerful grabbed land from the weaker. Some territories become smaller and disappeared, while others become larger and more powerful. The survivors are no longer merely local lords. Although they pretend to acknowledge the superiority of the Zhou kings, in reality they are princes of independent states.

Power-struggles within states

Competition between these states has been hotting up. At the same time, power-struggles within the states have become more frequent and more violent. Old ruling families vanish as sons kill fathers, brothers murder brothers and ministers assassinate their masters. New ruling families take their place, taking and holding their positions through raw political ruthlessness.

New schools of thought

What is happening at the top infects the whole of society. Traditional loyalties are forgotten as clans break up into warring groups. Old virtues – reverence for authority, respect for elders, obedience to fathers – seem to have been forgotten.

This is a time of uncertainty and change. Beliefs and practices which had previously been accepted without question now come under scrutiny. Teachers travel through the land putting forward new ideas. This is the period in China known as the One Hundred Schools, as competing ideas battle with one another.

The most influential of these schools of thought are Legalism, Mohism, Daoism and Confucianism.

Legalism

This teaches that people are inherently wicked, and need to be kept in line by means of harsh  punishments. People should even be punished for their neighbors’ crimes. As for rulers, they should do whatever it takes to maintain and strengthen their power. Treachery, trickery and force are all to be used when needed.

Mohism

This believes that all men, especially rulers, should treat others with respect and compassion. A ruler can go to war, but only to defend his subjects from attack.

Daoism

This was supposedly founded by the philosopher Laozi around 600 BCE. Its key text is the Dao De Jing (The Way and its Power).

The “Dao” means the “Way.” This teaching holds that men should live in harmony with nature (or the universe), and encourages them to “go with the flow” of life. For example, where a problem needs to be resolved, direct action should be avoided; an indirect approach is much better. A wise ruler should interfere with his people’s lives as little as possible.

Confucianism

The teaching put forward by Confucius (Kongfuzi, or Master Kong) calls for people to live moral lives in harmony with one another. To do this, all should give others their due respect. Children should obey their fathers (thus showing filial piety), wives their husbands, subjects their rulers and so on.

In due course, Confucianism would become the leading belief-system in China. It will help to create a society in which obedience and respect for authority is the usual state of affairs. It will play a large part in bringing stability and peace to the enormous country for long periods of time.

The key text for Confucianism is the Analects, a collection of the sayings of Confucius and some of his early disciples.

The Mandate of Heaven

One idea, already ancient by this date but which Confucians emphasize, is to do with the Mandate of Heaven. This holds that a line of rulers (a dynasty) has Heaven’s support only so long as the rulers govern the people justly. If they don’t, Heaven will transfer its support to another dynasty, and the first dynasty will fall from power.

Heaven’s disfavor can be seen when disasters such as floods and famines occur. Confucian thinkers say that if such signs show that Heaven’s favor has been withdrawn from a dynasty, then the people have the right – the duty, even – to rebel against it and install another dynasty.

What is happening in Ancient China in 360BCE

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China is now divided amongst several large and powerful states.

Stronger states

These centuries in Chinese history are traditionally called the Warring States period (this overlaps with the “Hundred Schools” period). 

Smaller states have been conquered by larger ones. There are now far fewer states than there were before, but the ones that remain are much more powerful. 

To survive in this period of fierce warfare, states have to raise larger and larger armies. To pay for them, rulers have to find ways of collecting taxes more efficiently. It is no longer enough to rely on the tribute the nobles send the prince. 

A new kind of government official

Increasingly, princes send their own officials to collect taxes directly from the farmers. They also employ them to supervise irrigation projects, and to organize the construction of roads and canals. 

These officials are well-educated men who are not members of the old aristocracy. They do not owe their positions to their family’s status or wealth. Instead, they are entirely dependent on their prince’s favor; they only hold their jobs while the prince and his ministers is satisfied with their work. 

In centuries to come, such men will come to dominate government in China. Their values and tastes will be important in shaping Chinese civilization.

Society in transition

Although there are frequent wars, in many ways this is a time of progress in China. As we have seen, the princes are in need of revenues in order to pay for ever-larger armies. One good way of increasing taxes from farmers is by increasing the amount of crops which they produce.

State governments encourage the use of iron tools in agriculture. This makes it easier for farmers to clear forests and turn them into farmland. Some states also carry out large-scale irrigation projects. This brings much new land into cultivation, or makes existing farmland more productive.

Trade and towns expand

Taxing trade is another good source of revenue. Many princes therefore encourage the growth of trade. They make trade easier by minting coins (metal coinage is introduced into China in about 400 BCE). 

Towns and cities grow, and new ones appear. The number of those who live in towns, such as merchants and artisans, increases.

Technological innovations

There are major technological advances at this time. Most notably, the Chinese develop the manufacture of steel, more than a thousand years before the West. In the military sphere, the crossbow appears. This is a more effective weapon than the bows and arrows of the time.

In this period, also, canals are first built in China for transportation, rather than just for irrigation. Chinese engineers would be by far the most skilled canal builders in the world for the next two thousand years.

The state of Qin

The rulers of the more powerful states are now taking the title king, to show that they are now completely independent of the Zhou king.

A militaristic state

One of these is the state of Qin. Located on the western frontier, the rulers of Qin are constantly facing threats from the non-Chinese barbarians on their doorstep. They therefore put into practice the teachings of the Legalist school of thought (see previous map, 500 BCE). 

• They enact harsh laws and demand unquestioning obedience from their subjects.
• They make all people responsible for the crimes of their neighbors as well as themselves.
• They impose high taxes on the population, along with heavy labor duties and long military service.

In these ways, the state of Qin becomes the strongest of all the states of China.

What is happening in Ancient China in 202BCE

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After the death of the First Emperor, China was engulfed by rebellions. From the chaos, a new leader emerges to found a new dynasty.

The Han dynasty comes to power

Following the First Emperor’s death, the Qin regime is soon overwhelmed by rebellions, and China swiftly descends into chaos. 

Rival rebel forces have then fought with one another until one group has emerged victorious. This is led by Liu Bang, a man of peasant origin with little education. What he does have is outstanding shrewdness and ability.

By 202 BCE he has triumphed over his enemies to found the Han dynasty. It would took several more years for him and his successors to deal with challenges to their regime. However, once firmly established, the dynasty would last four centuries, the longest-lasting of all China’s imperial dynasties.

Keeping things the same, but different

Liu Bang – or the emperor Gaozu, as he becomes known as on taking the throne – continues many Qin policies, but applies then less harshly. For example, he…

• reduces the taxes that peasants have to pay;
• makes the punishments of the legal code less severe;
• is careful not to embark on major projects that require huge amounts of forced labor.

This approach brings him the widespread support of the ordinary people of China.

What is happening in Ancient China in 100BCE

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The Han dynasty has given peace and stability to China, and expanded its borders.

Building on the Qin heritage

The Han have kept most of the Qin regime’s government organization – the provinces and districts, the huge army, the postal service and so on.

To supply their frontier armies, and move troops around their empire, the Han have maintained and expanded the road and canal network inherited from the Qin.

In some ways the Han have gone further than the Qin. The Qin appointed officials on merit, but the Han have taken the first steps towards creating the famous imperial examination system of later centuries. Men recommended for government service have to come to the imperial court and be tested on their educational attainments.

Confucian government

The Han emperors have increasingly surrounded themselves with Confucian scholars, and under the emperor Wudi (reigns 140-87 BCE) this school of thought becomes the official philosophy of government. For example, when men seeking government posts are examined on their educational attainments, they must prove themselves knowledgable about Confucianism.

Confucianism teaches that rulers and their officials should govern in the interests of the ordinary people. This helps the Han rule remarkably well by pre-modern standards.

For example, under the Han, just as in Qin times, all males are liable for military service and labor service, but the Han government  tries to to make sure these these duties are not too heavy.

Imperial expansion

Southern China

Under the vigorous rule of the emperor Wudi, the Han are bringing vast areas of southern China under their rule. Southern ports such as Canton will enable Chinese merchants to become involved in the maritime trade of the Indian Ocean.

Central Asia and the Silk Road

Wudi has also brought the eastern steppes of central Asia under Han control. He has achieved this as much by diplomacy as by military action.

Wudi has then sent diplomatic missions to central Asia and on as far as the Middle East, to establish trade relations with the peoples there. This has led to the organization of a great trade route to the West across central Asia.

A high-value commodity

One of Wudi’s main aims has been to purchase the fine horses bred by the nomads on the steppes. In exchange, the nomads purchase silk, that highly-prized fabric which the Chinese have been making for centuries. They have successfully kept the secrets of how to make silk, so other nations can only get it from them.

The nomads then exchange the silk for other commodities with peoples further west. These included the Romans. They value silk so highly that the Roman government would come to worry that the purchase of silk was draining the empire of silver and thus damaging its economy.

It was the importance of this textile to the trans-Asian trade route that led to it becoming known as the Silk Road.

Korea

Chinese armies also occupy a large part of the Korean peninsula at this time. Other states in the peninsula become vassals of the Han.

A prosperous empire

The standardization which the Qin introduced, and the Han have continued, has helped trade to flourish within China. A uniform system of coinage, weights and measures, writing, and axle widths on carts are used all over the empire. This helps merchants from different regions to trade easily with each other.

The roads and canals, which first the Qin and then the Han have constructed, allow merchants to transport goods much more easily and cheaply than before.

Most importantly, the peace that the Han government has brought has allowed commerce and industry to flourish, uninterrupted by war.

Farming also has benefitted from Han rule. It has expanded into new lands, often with government aid. The wheelbarrow is developed in China at this time, as is an early version of a seed drill.

What is happening in Ancient China in 100CE

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The Han dynasty is still in power three hundred years after its start – although there was a brief interruption between 9 and 23 CE.

Coup and counter-coup

In 9 CE a powerful chief minister, Wang Mang, seized the throne. By 23 CE, however, his policies,  aimed at trimming the wealth and power of landowners, had created so many powerful enemies that he was killed.

After a period of widespread and very destructive disturbances, the Han dynasty was restored.

The coming of Buddhism

Buddhism has come to China from India during the 1st century CE. It was brought by traders and monks along the Silk Road.

This alien religion is treated with great suspicion at first. Some Chinese, however, do convert, even at the highest level of government.

Paper

Sometime during the Later Han, the technology of paper-making has been developed in China.

This innovation apparently occurred at the imperial court itself. Previously, bamboo scrolls had been used, but these were awkward to make and heavy to carry. Silk was suitable for writing on, but far too expensive for everyday use. Paper is cheap and simple to make, and easy to carry around. Its use has quickly spread throughout China.

Long-term trends

Long-running social trends are at work to weaken the Han empire. After the downfall of Wang Mang, the Han dynasty largely owed its restoration to the support of the landowning class. Since then, therefore, government policies have favored this group. Landowners are growing wealthier as their estates grow larger. Many peasants are losing their land to become tenant farmers or serfs.

In short, the rich are getting richer, and the poor are getting poorer.

Things have got worse recently, because a series of weak emperors have allowed standards of government to slip. Corruption is spreading within the civil service, and government officials are becoming more oppressive.

The peasantry are growing more and more rebellious. There is danger ahead for the Han.

What is happening in Ancient China in 316CE

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The Han empire has fallen, and China is now weak and divided. The northern half has been occupied by barbarian invaders from central Asia.

The fall of the Han and after

The Han empire fell into steep decline after 180 CE. Under a series of child emperors, violent factions fought each other for control of the imperial court. 

This allowed corruption to spread throughout government. Officials oppressed the people, with the weakest in society suffering most, as they always do. Peasant unrest grew, leading to a massive uprising.

This led swiftly to the downfall of the Han dynasty. In its place, rival kingdoms fought one another. By the late 3rd century CE one kingdom had defeated the others; all of China was again reunited, under the Jin dynasty. 

Very soon, however, disaster struck. In the early 4th century, nomadic tribes from the steppes of central Asia invaded and occupied northern China. The Jin government was forced to flee to southern China.

Widespread suffering

These times are known in Chinese history as the Three Kingdoms Period. It is famous for many thrilling tales of daring and cunning. In reality it was a wretched period for the people of China.

In late Han times, rich landowners had prospered at the expense of ordinary farmers. In the final decades of the Han empire and the period of the Three Kingdoms, extremely high levels of chaos and violence made things even worse for the poor. Millions lost their lives, and many more were forced from their homes and livelihoods.

Landowners and peasants

Wealthy landowners fortified their estates, and raised bands of armed followers to protect them. They were able to dominate the governments of the various kingdoms. This in turn allowed them to grab more land for themselves. 

Many peasants found their small farms seized, and themselves forced into serfdom. Others offered their lands to their local landowners to place themselves under his protection. Millions more fled their lands altogether, and headed south.

Conditions became even worse during the barbarian invasions. Many cities were sacked, and farms and homes across large areas of land were devastated. These disasters led to millions of more deaths, and set in motion another massed flight of peasants southward. 

The rise of Buddhism in China

During these troubled times, Confucianism has no answers to the sufferings of so many people. It remains the official philosophy in all the Chinese states, but even the officials do not pay it much more than lip service. Instead, many Chinese, of all ranks, are turning to Buddhism, with its message of hope and salvation. It is at this time that this foreign religion becomes widespread throughout Chinese society.

What is happening in Ancient China in 407CE

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In northern China, non-Chinese dynasties rule several kingdoms, while in the south there is a single state, ruled by the Jin dynasty. 

Southern China

During the Han dynasty, southern China was a frontier zone. The mass migration of peasants from northern China, however, has led to population levels rising sharply here. New land is being brought into cultivation through the draining of lakes and swamps, the clearing of forests and the creation of irrigation systems. This is a process which will continue for centuries to come.

The northern barbarian-ruled kingdoms

In northern China, the barbarian tribal leaders struggle to govern their newly-conquered states.

The rulers need the help of native Chinese officials in administering kingdoms, in which millions of native Chinese live. Little by little, the rulers rely more and more on these officials. Little by little, also, the rulers adopt Chinese ways. There is an almost irresistible tendency for these barbarian kings and their followers to become more and more Sinified (i.e. more Chinese) in culture and way of life.

Many tribesmen are appalled at this trend. They try and put a stop to it by rebelling, and sometimes massacre the Chinese officials. But the trend towards more Chinese ways soon starts again. 

All these barbarian-ruled kingdoms are thus very unstable. From time to time they even split, into two or more kingdoms.

Buddhism

More and more Buddhist monasteries and temples are being built. Buddhist styles of art and architecture appear, based on Indian models. Later, Buddhist art becomes more Chinese in its style. For example, the Buddhist stupa – a domed-shape building – soon evolves into the Chinese pagoda. 

As it spreads in China, Buddhism is increasingly influenced by Daoism. As a result, distinctly Chinese forms of Buddhism begin to emerge. The most famous of these is Chan Buddhism. This will later spread to Japan as Zen Buddhism.

What is happening in Ancient China in 500CE

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In the north, the different barbarian kingdoms have been merged into a single kingdom, ruled by the Northern Wei dynasty.

The Northern Wei state

The reason why the Northern Wei state is more stable than previous barbarian-ruled kingdoms is that its ruling class has become much more unified. Leading non-Chinese families have inter-married with the families of senior Chinese officials. Even the rulers come from joint barbarian-Chinese backgrounds.

The Northern Wei ruling class is therefore becoming ever more Chinese in its ways. Its men are educated along Confucian lines (though they mostly remain Buddhist by religion). More and more of them are becoming government officials. They are giving up the ways of their nomadic ancestors.

Southern China

In the south, the Jin dynasty has been overthrown (in 420 CE). Four weak dynasties follow in quick succession. Nevertheless, southern China has seen a rising population, increased agricultural production, and reviving trade.